1091

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The year 1091 was a common year that began on a Wednesday. It marked significant events in various regions, including the Byzantine Empire, Normandy, England, Scotland, and the Maghreb.

In the Byzantine Empire, Spring Tzachas, a Turkish Seljuk military commander, established an independent maritime state centered around the coastal city of Esmirna (modern-day Izmir). Meanwhile, Emperor Alexios I defeated 80,000 Pechenegs in the Battle of Lévounion on April 29. This victory was largely due to his allies' support.

The death of King Stephen II of Croatia without an heir led to a power vacuum that was eventually filled by King Ladislaus I of Hungary, who intervened and occupied Croatia at the instigation of his sister, Queen Helena. In Normandy, Duke Roger Borsa surrendered his share in Calabria's castles and received Palermo as his inheritance.

The Norman conquest of Sicily continued with the capture of Noto on February 2. King Malcolm III of Scotland invaded England, reaching as far south as Durham, before being forced to accept the terms of the Treaty of Abernethy (1072) and pay homage. In Wales, Robert Fitzhamon built Cardiff Castle.

Disasters struck in London when a T8 tornado occurred on October 17, destroying the wooden London Bridge and the church of St. John's.

In Al-Andalus (modern Spain), the Abbadid dynasty fell when Almoravid forces stormed Seville. The Norman invasion of Malta began with Count Roger I of Sicily leading a fleet to the island in July. Meanwhile, Venice secured new business privileges in the Byzantine Empire, and Pope Urban II established Ash Wednesday for all.

The Council of Benedict by Pope Urban II took place on March 28, prohibiting the election of bishops who were not priests or deacons. Emperor Henry IV seized Mantua from Countess Mathilde on April 11. The Almoravides began their siege of Seville in May, and Pisa obtained sovereignty over Corsica through a bubble of Pope Urban II.

In Scotland, King Malcolm III invaded England but was forced to accept the terms of the Treaty of Abernethy. In Normandy, William II of England and his brother Robert II signed the Treaty of Caen on July 18, which named them heirs to each other's territories. Theodosian