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The Armistice Day centenary, signifying one hundred years since the Armistice that ended World War I on the Western Front, was marked on 11 November 2018. Commemorative events were planned in the weeks leading up to the centenary itself, including a gathering of over 70 heads of state and government in Paris. A series of Armistice Day, Remembrance Day and Veterans Day commemorations, ceremonies and speeches were held across Europe, the Commonwealth and the United States, as well as in other locations throughout the world.

Background

The Armistice of 11 November 1918 was signed near the French town of Compiègne between the Allies (led by Supreme Allied Commander Ferdinand Foch) and Germany (represented by Matthias Erzberger), after similar agreements had been made with Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary. The agreements made by both sides included the cessation of all hostilities on the Western Front. It was officially signed at 5:45am on 11 November and came into effect later that morning at 11am Paris time. Following the end of the war, 11 November is commemorated as an annual day of remembrance in multiple countries under different names (Armistice Day, Remembrance Day in Commonwealth countries and Veterans Day in the United States).

France

Commemorative events were organized as part of the French government's wider committee.

The programme began on 4 November 2018, when President Emmanuel Macron and his spouse Brigitte Macron hosted German President Frank-Walter Steinmeier at the Strasbourg Cathedral. A concert was held in their presence, and the flags of France, Germany and the European Union were hoisted outside the cathedral.

In the lead up to the centenary itself, President Macron carried out a "memorial tour", visiting symbolic locations on the Western Front. The tour was met with backlash, particularly "drawing the scorn of ordinary French voters over his perceived metropolitan disregard for their pocketbook concerns." Macron also announced that writer Maurice Genevoix, author of numerous books on the First World War, would be listed on the Panthéon in 2019, alongside 14 other authors.

In overseas France, which contributed to the wider French war effort, the number of Réunionese troops killed in action was readjusted to 1,693, leading to the island issuing a renewal of the plaques on its war memorials on the eve of the commemoration of the centenary.

On 10 November, Macron and German Chancellor Angela Merkel visited the Glade of the Armistice at Compiègne, where they laid a wreath, unveiled a reconciliatory plaque and signed a book of remembrance in a replica of the railway carriage where the Armistice was signed. The visit was symbolic as it marked the first time that French and German leaders had visited the site since 1945.

On the same day, Macron held a bilateral meeting with US President Donald Trump at the Élysée Palace. The meeting was timed a day after Trump published a tweet saying Europe should "first pay its fair share" of NATO in response to the former's suggestions for a continental European army.

At 11:00 CET on 11 November, bells across France rang simultaneously to mark a century since the armistice came into force, including at Notre-Dame de Paris and churches in overseas territories such as Wallis and Futuna.

The European Broadcasting Union organized a commemorative concert at the Royal Opera of Versailles with performances by the Vienna Philharmonic, entitled the "Concert for Peace." In La Force, Dordogne, violinist Pierre Hamel from the Orchestre Colonne performed at a concert using a metal violin assembled by soldiers in the trenches.

A series of religious memorial services were organized, including an international mass at Notre-Dame de Paris, conducted by Archbishop Michel Aupetit.

International ceremony

Macron outlined plans to host a commemoration ceremony at the Arc de Triomphe followed by an inaugural peace forum on the occasion of the centenary.

The Arc de Triomphe event began at roughly 11:20 on 11 November, with a performance of the national anthem La Marseillaise and an inspection of troops by Macron, followed by a roll call of French soldiers killed in the preceding year and a second rendition of La Marseillaise by an army choir. The event included performances by cellist Yo-Yo Ma, French violinist Renaud Capuçon and Beninese musician Angélique Kidjo, and 1918 testimonies being read out by a group of teenage students.

Macron delivered a speech in which he denounced nationalism as a "betrayal of patriotism", and warned of the resurgence of "old demons". His address was followed by a performance of Ravel's Bolero by the European Union Youth Orchestra.

The end of the ceremony included a rekindling of the Tomb to the Unknown Soldier, where Macron also laid a wreath. The "Sonnerie aux morts" and a minute of silence, concluding with the "Cessez-le-feu" bugle call, marked the end of the commemorations.

The inaugural Paris Peace Forum was opened at the Grande halle de la Villette in the afternoon, with Macron, Merkel and United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres giving remarks.

Participants

Over 120 foreign guests, including 72 heads of state and government and representatives of several international organizations, were reported to have attended the commemorations in Paris. According to the French presidential office, only countries "which sent troops or workers to the European theaters of war" were invited to be represented. In preparation for the events, around 10,000 police officers, gendarmes and soldiers were placed on duty.

US President Donald Trump, Russian President Vladimir Putin and Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu used their own transportation—ultimately showing up late to the ceremony venue—due to security concerns, in contrast to other guests who were taken to the venue at the Arc de Triomphe in buses.

Visiting dignitaries were invited to an official reception dinner at the Musée d'Orsay on the evening of 10 November, and attended a reception at the Élysée Palace the following morning. All foreign guests were invited to a luncheon at the Élysée immediately after the commemorations concluded, with their consorts gathering at the Palace of Versailles. Most participants at the aforementioned ceremony also attended the Paris Peace Forum, with Trump notably opting to instead visit the Suresnes American Cemetery and Memorial, where he made an address before returning to Washington.

French dignitaries
Emmanuel Macron, President of France, and Brigitte Macron
Nicolas Sarkozy, former President of France (2007–2012)
Édouard Philippe, Prime Minister of France
Édith Cresson, former Prime Minister (1991–1992)
Édouard Balladur, former Prime Minister (1993–1995)
Jean-Marc Ayrault, former Prime Minister (2012–2014)
Gérard Larcher, President of the French Senate
Richard Ferrand, President of the National Assembly
Christophe Castaner, Minister of the Interior
Geneviève Darrieussecq, Secretary of State to the Minister of the Armed Forces
Anne Hidalgo, Mayor of Paris
Jean-Yves Le Drian, Minister of Europe and Foreign Affairs
Florence Parly, Minister of the Armed Forces
Valérie Pécresse, President of the Regional Council of Île-de-France
Jacques Toubon, French ombudsman

International
Present at the Arc de Triomphe commemorations unless stated otherwise.

Heads of state and members of royal houses
Ilir Meta, President of Albania
Alexander Van der Bellen, President of Austria, and First Lady Doris Schmidauer
Bakir Izetbegović, Chairman and Bosniak member of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Rumen Radev, President of Bulgaria, and First Lady Desislava Radeva
Roch Marc Christian Kaboré, President of Burkina Faso
Faustin-Archange Touadéra, President of the Central African Republic
Idriss Déby, President of Chad, and First Lady Hinda Déby Itno
Azali Assoumani, President of Comoros, and First Lady Ambari Assoumani
Denis Sassou Nguesso, President of the Republic of the Congo, and First Lady Antoinette Sassou Nguesso
Kolinda Grabar-Kitarović, President of Croatia, and First Gentleman Jakov Kitarović
Nicos Anastasiades, President of Cyprus, and First Lady Andri Anastasiades
Ismaïl Omar Guelleh, President of Djibouti
Kersti Kaljulaid, President of Estonia
Sauli Niinistö, President of Finland
Giorgi Margvelashvili, President of Georgia, and First Lady Maka Chichua
Alpha Condé, President of Guinea
Guðni Th. Jóhannesson, President of Iceland
Sergio Mattarella, President of Italy
Alassane Ouattara, President of Ivory Coast, and First Lady Dominique Ouattara
Uhuru Kenyatta, President of Kenya
Hashim Thaçi, President of Kosovo
Raimonds Vējonis, President of Latvia
Dalia Grybauskaitė, President of Lithuania
George Weah, President of Liberia
Fayez al-Sarraj, Chairman of the Presidential Council and Prime Minister of Libya, and Nadia Refaat
The Grand Duke and Grand Duchess of Luxembourg
Gjorge Ivanov, President of the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
Rivo Rakotovao, acting President of Madagascar
Ibrahim Boubacar Keita, President of Mali
Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz, President of Mauritania, and First Lady Mariam Mint Ahmed Dit Tekber
Igor Dodon, President of Moldova
The Prince and Princess of Monaco
Milo Đukanović, President of Montenegro
The King of Morocco
The Crown Prince of Morocco
Mahamadou Issoufou, President of Niger, and First Lady Lalla Malika Issoufou
Muhammadu Buhari, President of Nigeria
Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa, President of Portugal
The Emir of Qatar
Klaus Iohannis, President of Romania, and First Lady Carmen Iohannis
Vladimir Putin, President of Russia
Paul Kagame, President of Rwanda
Macky Sall, President of Senegal
Aleksandar Vučić, President of Serbia
Andrej Kiska, President of Slovakia
Borut Pahor, President of Slovenia
The King of Spain
Alain Berset, President and Head of the Federal Department of Home Affairs of Switzerland, and Muriel Zeender
Beji Caid Essebsi, President of Tunisia
Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, President of Turkey, and First Lady Emine Erdoğan
Petro Poroshenko, President of Ukraine, and First Lady Maryna Poroshenko
Donald Trump, President of the United States, and First Lady Melania Trump
Tallis Obed Moses, President of Vanuatu, and First Lady Estella Moses

Heads of government
Ahmed Ouyahia, Prime Minister of Algeria
Nikol Pashinyan, Prime Minister of Armenia, and Anna Hakobyan
Charles Michel, Prime Minister of Belgium, and Amélie Derbaudrenghien
Justin Trudeau, Prime Minister of Canada
Andrej Babiš, Prime Minister of the Czech Republic, and Monika Herodesová
Lars Løkke Rasmussen, Prime Minister of Denmark
Angela Merkel, Chancellor of Germany
Alexis Tsipras, Prime Minister of Greece
Leo Varadkar, Taoiseach of Ireland
Benjamin Netanyahu, Prime Minister of Israel, and Sara Netanyahu
Saad Hariri, Prime Minister of Lebanon
Xavier Bettel, Prime Minister of Luxembourg, and Gauthier Destenay
Mark Rutte, Prime Minister of the Netherlands
Erna Solberg, Prime Minister of Norway
Rami Hamdallah, Prime Minister of Palestine
Pedro Sánchez, Prime Minister of Spain, and Begoña Gómez
Stefan Löfven, Prime Minister of Sweden, and Ulla Löfven
Prayut Chan-o-cha, Prime Minister of Thailand, and Naraporn Chan-o-cha

Other representatives
Sir Peter Cosgrove, Governor-General of Australia, and Lynne, Lady Cosgrove
Elmar Mammadyarov, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Azerbaijan
Tarique Ahmed Siddique, security adviser to Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina of Bangladesh
Mikhail Myasnikovich, Speaker of the Council of the Republic of the National Assembly of Belarus
Aurélien Agbénonci, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Benin
Chea Sophara, Deputy Prime Minister of Cambodia
Ji Bingxuan, Vice-Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress of China
Epeli Nailatikau, former President of Fiji
, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Gabon
Cardinal Pietro Parolin, Cardinal Secretary of State of the Holy See
Venkaiah Naidu, Vice-President of India, and Usha Naidu
Tarō Asō, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Finance of Japan
Dastan Jumabekov, Speaker of the Parliament of Kyrgyzstan
Phankham Viphavanh, Vice-President of Laos
Carmelo Abela, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Malta
Winston Peters, Deputy Prime Minister of New Zealand, and Jan Trotman
Jacek Czaputowicz, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Poland
Nosiviwe Mapisa-Nqakula, Minister of Defence of South Africa
, Chairman of the Assembly of Representatives of Tajikistan
David Lidington, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and Minister for the Cabinet Office of the United Kingdom
Nigmatilla Yuldashev, Chairman of the Senate of Uzbekistan

Ambassadors
Paulo César de Oliveira Campos, Ambassador of Brazil to France
, Ambassador of Kazakhstan to France
Moin ul Haq, Ambassador of Pakistan to France
Çary Nyýazow, Ambassador of Turkmenistan to France
The Lord Llewellyn of Steep, Ambassador of the United Kingdom to France
Nguyên Thiêp, Ambassador of Vietnam to France

International organizations
Moussa Faki, Chairperson of the African Union Commission
Thorbjørn Jagland, Secretary General of the Council of Europe
Jean-Claude Juncker, President of the European Commission
Antonio Tajani, President of the European Parliament
Michaëlle Jean, Secretary-General of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie
Guy Ryder, Director-General of the International Labour Organization
Christine Lagarde, chair and managing director of the International Monetary Fund
Jens Stoltenberg, Secretary General of NATO
José Ángel Gurría, Secretary-General of the OECD
Audrey Azoulay, Director-General of UNESCO
Paolo Artini, Representative to France of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
António Guterres, Secretary-General of the United Nations
María Fernanda Espinosa, President of the United Nations General Assembly
Roberto Azevêdo, Director-General of the World Trade Organization
Jim Yong Kim, President of the World Bank Group

Controversies
In October 2018, reports circulated in the French press that Philippe Pétain, who served in the Battle of Verdun and later led Nazi-aligned Vichy France, would be paid tribute at the Hôtel des Invalides alongside other World War I marshals. In response, the office of the Élysée said it didn't understand how such a tribute "ended up there", explaining that it was "not in the [official] program". President Macron in particular described Pétain as a "great soldier", while remarking that he made "disastrous choices" during the Nazi occupation. The resulting public controversy led to the tribute to Pétain being withdrawn from the schedule.

A planned visit by US President Donald Trump to the Aisne-Marne American Cemetery and Memorial, due on 10 November, was cancelled due to what the White House termed "bad weather". The decision was met with harsh criticism, particularly from former Obama national security advisor Ben Rhodes and British Conservative politician Nicholas Soames, a grandson of Winston Churchill.

During the procession to the Arc de Triomphe, Trump's motorcade passed by a topless woman who ran towards it and was quickly dragged out by French police. The radical feminist group Femen claimed responsibility for the incident. French police had already arrested three Femen demonstrators who staged a protest at the Arc de Triomphe on the morning of 10 November welcoming "war criminals". Anti-Trump demonstrations were additionally held at the Place de la République.

The seating arrangement caused a major controversy in Serbia. As the Serbian army had a pivotal role in forcing both Bulgaria and Austro-Hungary out of the war, with Serbia itself having the most extensive casualties compared to its population number and a historical friendship with France, the positioning of Serbian president Aleksandar Vučić away from the frontline seating areas in place of representatives of countries which were on the opposing side in the war or didn't even exist as separate states at the time, was taken as an insult in Serbia.

United Kingdom
On 4 November, 10,000 torches were lit in the moat of the Tower of London, in an artistic installation entitled Beyond the Deepening Shadow which repeated nightly ending on 11 November.

The Shrouds of the Somme, designed by artist Rob Heard and comprising 72,396 shrouded figures representing all servicemen from the British Commonwealth with no known grave, was laid out at the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park, being on display from 8 to 18 November 2018.

On 9 November, Prime Minister Theresa May and French President Emmanuel Macron jointly paid respects at the Thiepval Memorial in northern France. May also laid wreaths at the graves of John Parr and George Edwin Ellison, respectively the first and last British soldiers killed during the war, during a visit to the St Symphorien Military Cemetery in Belgium. Her wreaths were engraved with handwritten messages, invoking wartime poems to express gratitude to the dead for being "staunch to the end".

Remembrance Sunday

As Remembrance Sunday in 2018 fell on 11 November, the National Service of Remembrance was held concurrently with other commemorative events in Europe.

The service at the Cenotaph in London began at 11:00 GMT, with a two-minute silence being observed, after which Prince Charles then laid the first wreath on behalf of Queen Elizabeth II. Thousands were able to pay respect to relatives and soldiers killed in the war during a march past the memorial. Despite ongoing renovations, the Big Ben rang eleven times at 12:30 GMT.

German President Frank-Walter Steinmeier was invited to attend as a special guest, becoming the first German leader to lay a wreath at the Cenotaph. The Department for Digital, Culture, Media and Sport described his presence as "a symbol of the friendship that exists between the two countries today". A memorial service was held in the evening at Westminster Abbey, where Steinmeier read out a passage from 1 St John 4: 7–11 in German. The Queen and several senior royal family members also attended a remembrance concert.

Similar commemorative events were held across the United Kingdom's constituent countries. In Scotland, Princess Anne attended a service at Glasgow Cathedral, while First Minister Nicola Sturgeon and other officials laid wreaths.

Other locations
Commemorative events took place in Canada, Hong Kong, Italy, Myanmar, Romania, and Russia on the occasion of the centenary.

Ceremonies in Kenya and Zambia were scheduled for 25 November 2018; German forces fighting in Northern Rhodesia only received news of the armistice on 14 November 1918, and eventually surrendered later that month. In Voi, the Commonwealth War Cemetery hosted a small ceremony, which was attended by British and German diplomats; a Kenyan army bugler played the Last Post during the ceremony, and wreaths were laid by a Kenyan general and some local and international visitors. The Zambian government sponsored a centenary event organized by the Zambian tourism agency in the town of Mbala, saying that attraction to the region would unlock the "tourism and investment potential of Northern Province".

Australia

A minute of silence was observed nationally in remembrance of Australian soldiers who fought and died in overseas conflicts. Prime Minister Scott Morrison addressed a crowd of more than 12,000 attending during a national Remembrance Day service in Canberra. A centenary extension of the Anzac Memorial in Sydney was also opened to the public.

In addition, over a thousand people attended a commemoration at the Australian National Memorial in the French town of Villers-Bretonneux.

Belgium
National commemorations were held in the Belgian capital of Brussels. In an address, King Philippe pledged with people to keep alive the memory of the war, and to "engage together in building a world of peace." A dove and 11 pigeons were released during the memorial service.

In Ypres, a series of tributes to Commonwealth veterans was attended by the Minister-President of Flanders, Geert Bourgeois. The Last Post, traditionally performed in the evening since 1928, was additionally played at 11:00 CET on the occasion of the centenary.

In Mons, celebrations were held marking the anniversary of Canadian troops taking over the city from the Germans, in the final leg of Canada's Hundred Days. The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) of Canada led a recreated Armistice parade through the city.

Germany
Public memorialization of the First World War was muted, mainly owing to the defeat of the German Empire and the chronology of events resulting from the aftermath of the war. Nonetheless, some individual events were organized, including a religious service at the Berlin Cathedral, and an exhibition showcasing works by 31 international artists representing countries involved in WWI peace negotiations.

Hungary
The Hungarian National Bank released a series of commemorative coins on 16 October 2018, which included a silver collector coin with a face value of 10,000 Hungarian forint and a non-ferrous metal variant with a fifth of the face value.

India
A memorial service was held at the Delhi War Cemetery, where Indian and British delegates laid wreaths. Conservative MP Tom Tugendhat led the British delegation and was joined by Sir Dominic Asquith, British High Commissioner to India, and defence attaché Brigadier Mark Goldsack.

In a series of tweets, Prime Minister Narendra Modi paid tribute to Indian troops and pledged to "further an atmosphere of harmony and brotherhood".

Ireland
A commemoration service at Glasnevin Cemetery was attended by President Michael D. Higgins, who was due to be sworn in for a second term, and representatives of at least 47 countries. The Last Post was played during the ceremony.

Luxembourg
A ceremony was held at the Gëlle Fra monument in the capital during the late afternoon, in the presence of Grand Duke Henri and Grand Duchess Maria Teresa of Luxembourg as well as Prime Minister Xavier Bettel. Bettel also paid tribute to war casualties.

New Zealand
The Pukeahu National War Memorial Park in Wellington hosted an Armistice commemoration service, which was organized as part of the wider New Zealand WW100 commemorations. A 100-gun salute was held at the Wellington waterfront, and two minutes of silence were observed at 11:00 NZDT, followed by a cacophony of noise replicating how the public initially reacted to the news of the Armistice a century prior. Governor-General Dame Patsy Reddy and Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern gave speeches at the event.

United States
The National World War I Museum and Memorial in Kansas City, Missouri hosted a ceremony in which participants and relatives of WWI veterans tolled a "bell of peace" and laid wreaths in memory of those killed in the war. The Washington National Cathedral organized a commemorative worship service.

President Donald Trump proposed that a military parade at the Capitol be held on 10 November to mark the centenary, in admiration of France's Bastille Day military parade (which Trump attended as a guest in 2017). However, Trump cancelled the proposed event in August 2018 over cost concerns, with estimates that the parade would have cost as much as US$92 million.

Vatican City
In remarks made during a weekly Angelus address, Pope Francis appealed for a rejection of a "culture of war", quoting Benedict XV, who served as pope during the majority of the First World War, and reflecting on the occasion of St. Martin's Day, which also fell on 11 November. The bells at St. Peter's Basilica were tolled in the afternoon in unison with other church bells across Europe.

See also
Armistice Day
Centenary of the outbreak of World War I
First World War centenary
Paris Peace Forum
Remembrance Day

Notes

References

Works cited

Further reading
S. Sumartojo, Experiencing 11 November 2018 – Commemoration and the First World War Centenary, Routledge, 2020. .

External links

AP Was There: Armistice brings World War I to an end – Associated Press
Cérémonie internationale du Centenaire de l'Armistice du 11 novembre 1918 à l'Arc de triomphe – Présidence de la République (Dailymotion video)
Remembrance Day National Ceremony 2018 – Australian War Memorial (YouTube video)
Armistice Centenary National Ceremony – WW100 New Zealand (YouTube video)

2018 in Europe
November 2018 events in Europe
November 2018 events in the United States
November 2018 events in Oceania
2018 in military history
First World War centenary