The Umayyad State

The Umayyad State or the Umayyad Caliphate (41-132 AH / 662-750 CE) was the largest state and second caliphate in Islamic history, and one of the most powerful states in history. The Banu Umayya were the first ruling family from the Hijaz to govern Islam; they ruled from 41 AH (662 CE) to 132 AH (750 CE), with Damascus as their capital. At its peak under Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, the state's borders extended from the eastern edges of China to southern France in the west.

The Umayyads claimed descent from Amr ibn Abd Shams from the Quraish tribe and played a significant role during the pre-Islamic era and the Islamic period. Muawiya ibn Abu Sufyan converted to Islam under Prophet Muhammad's rule, and established the Umayyad state under his leadership. Before that, he was governor of Syria under Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab, but a conflict arose between him and Ali ibn Abi Talib after the murder of Uthman, leading Muawiya to take power.

Muawiya adopted some Byzantine practices in governance and administration; he made the caliphate hereditary when he appointed his son Yazid as successor, established an imperial throne and guards, surrounded himself with symbols of royal authority, built a private pavilion within the mosque, and created the Diwan al-Khatam (a council) and postal system. After Yazid's death, the situation became unstable; Abdullah ibn Zubayr claimed the caliphate, but was defeated and killed by Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan in Mecca in 73 AH.

The largest Umayyad conquests took place during the reign of Walid ibn Abd al-Malik; he completed the conquest of North Africa, conquered all of Spain, and conquered Sindh under several leaders including Sinan ibn Salama, Muhammad ibn Qasim, and Qutayba ibn Muslim. Later came Caliph Sulaiman ibn Abd al-Malik, who died while besieging Constantinople; then Omar ibn Abd al-Aziz, considered one of the best Umayyad caliphs for his governance; followed by Yazid ibn Abd al-Malik and his brother Hisham. During Hisham's reign, southern France was conquered, and his rule was marked by stability.

After Hisham's death, the state entered a period of severe turmoil until Marwan ibn Muhammad seized power, moving between provinces and suppressing rebellions. He eventually clashed with the Abbasids at the Battle of Zab but was defeated and killed. The Umayyad era saw numerous uprisings and civil wars; most were led by Kharijites or Shia groups. Hussein ibn Ali refused to pledge allegiance to Yazid, instead rebelling against him and marching towards Iraq, where he was killed in the Battle of Karbala.

This sparked a wave of Shia uprisings seeking revenge for his death, including the Revolt of the Two Martyrs and the Revolt of al-Mukhtar. The Kharijites repeatedly rebelled but were only temporarily pacified after about 20 years between Abd al-Malik's reign and Yazeed's. Hajjaj ibn Yusuf al-Thaqafi played a significant role in suppressing these rebellions, particularly as governor of Iraq and the East.

The Umayyad state was eventually overthrown by those who claimed the right to rule belonged to the House of Ali.